Chess — one of the oldest and most famous games in the world. This strategic duel between two opponents has passed through the centuries, evolving alongside cultures and becoming part of their heritage. The game has gained millions of admirers and has become a symbol of intellectual competition. The history of Chess is important because it reflects cultural exchange between nations and the development of ideas that have enriched the game over the centuries.
From courtly legends and royal chambers to international tournaments — Chess has always stood out among other board games for its depth and unique style. It has taken a firm place in world culture: its imagery appears in literature and art, scenes of play are found in cinema, and matches between champions attract as much public attention as sports finals. Let us trace the path of this remarkable game from its origins to the present day and see how the rules and appearance of the “royal game” have changed over the centuries.
History of Chess
Origin and early years
The origins of Chess are shrouded in legend, but most historians agree that the prototype of the game appeared in northern India around the 6th century AD. The early Indian version was called Chaturanga (Caturaṅga), which translates from Sanskrit as “four parts of the army.” Each piece represented a branch of the armed forces: pawns — infantry, knights — cavalry, elephants — war elephants, and rooks — war chariots. It was the combination of these four elements that distinguished Chaturanga from simpler board games: different pieces had different moves and roles, and the ultimate goal was to protect the main piece — the prototype of the modern king.
The author of Chaturanga cannot be identified, which is unsurprising given the remoteness of that era. Nevertheless, Indian legends mention a courtier named Sissa ben Dahir (Sissa ben Dahir), who was considered the inventor of Chess. According to legend, he presented the raja with the first Chessboard and requested an unusual reward — grain, the quantity of which was to double on each subsequent square. Thus arose the famous “Sissa’s problem” (“The Wheat and Chessboard problem”), which vividly demonstrated the power of geometric progression: the final number of grains proved so immense that it exceeded all the reserves of the kingdom. Although this story, first recorded only in the 13th century, is legendary, it underscores the ingenuity and mathematical depth that have long been associated with Chess.
From India, the game spread to the Sassanid Empire in Persia. There it was called Shatranj (Šatranj) — a word derived from the Sanskrit Chaturanga. Shatranj quickly entered courtly entertainment and became part of the intellectual culture of the Persian elite. The epic poem “Shahnameh” (شاهنامه — “The Book of Kings”), written by Abu’l-Qāsim Firdawsī, tells a legend about how the game first appeared at the court of King Khosrow I (Xosrōe). According to the story, an Indian raja sent the Chessboard as a riddle and challenge to the Persians, and the sage Buzurgmehr deciphered the rules of the new pieces and in response invented Nard — the ancestor of modern backgammon. Although this story is doubtful in historical terms, it illustrates the strong impression the new game made.
By the 7th century AD, Chess had become popular in Persia, and both its rules and pieces had undergone noticeable changes. A new piece appeared — the queen (from the Persian “ferz,” meaning adviser), which was absent in Indian Chaturanga. The queen of that time was far weaker than the modern one: she could move only one square diagonally and was the forerunner of today’s powerful monarch. Other pieces also had restrictions. The bishop (then called alfil) moved by jumping two squares diagonally, leaping over the intermediate square, making it less versatile than its modern counterpart. The main goal of Shatranj was to checkmate the opponent’s king or to achieve the so-called “bare king,” capturing all of the opponent’s pieces and leaving the monarch defenseless.
From the Persians, Chess inherited not only the game itself but also the term “mate.” The word “checkmate” derives from the Persian expression “shah mat,” meaning literally “the king is helpless” or “the king is defeated.” This phrase was used in antiquity to declare a situation where the king had no way to escape. From it comes the modern phrase “check and mate,” meaning that the king is trapped with no way out. It is noteworthy that the word “shah” (“king”) itself gave rise to the name of the game in many European languages. The English “chess” and the French “échecs” come from Old French “eschecs,” which in turn originates from the Arabic “shatranj,” borrowed from the Persian “shah.” Thus, even in the names of the game, its journey from the Ancient East to Europe is reflected.
Spread around the world
Arab conquests and trade routes played a decisive role in the rapid spread of Chess from Persia both westward and eastward. After the Arab conquest of Persia in the 640s AD, the game known as Shatranj spread throughout the Middle East and North Africa. Soon Chess became an important part of the intellectual life of the Caliphate: it was studied alongside astronomy, mathematics, and literature. Already in the 9th century in Baghdad appeared the first great Chess theorists, such as as-Suli (as-Suli) and al-Adli (al-Adli), authors of treatises that analyzed endgames, openings, and playing techniques in Shatranj.
By the 10th century, Chess was well known in Europe: it arrived through Muslim Spain (al-Andalus) and Sicily, where it took root in courtly culture. Almost simultaneously, Chess reached distant Scandinavia — brought there by the Vikings, as evidenced by the discovery of game pieces in ancient burials. One of the most famous archaeological finds is the collection known as the Lewis Chessmen, discovered on the Isle of Lewis in Scotland. These miniatures, dating from the 12th century and probably crafted by Norwegian artisans, were carved from walrus ivory. They depict kings, queens, bishops, warriors, and pawns with a characteristic grotesque expression. The Lewis Chessmen are a unique testament to how deeply the game penetrated medieval European culture and reflected the artistic traditions of its time.
As Chess spread, its names changed in different languages. In medieval Latin texts, the game was often called “the game of kings” (rex ludorum), emphasizing its prestige and connection to the ruling elite. In vernacular languages, variants derived from “shah” or “shah mat,” meaning “threat to the king,” became established. In the Old Russian tradition, the word “shakhmaty” came from the Persian-Arabic world through intermediary languages and coexisted with the term “tetradi” (from Shatranj).
It is also interesting that the pieces acquired local characteristics in different countries. Thus, in Western Europe, the elephant was reinterpreted as a bishop: hence the English “bishop” and the French “fou” (“jester,” “madman”). It was believed that the shape of the piece resembled either a miter or a jester’s cap. In Russia, however, the same form was seen as an elephant, and the eastern name became fixed. The rooks were sometimes depicted as towers, sometimes as war wagons, and in medieval Russia even as boats — carved wooden ships replacing rooks. This tradition lasted until the 20th century, and old Russian Chess sets sometimes feature miniature boats instead of towers.
These cultural details show that as Chess spread around the world, it not only preserved its basic structure but also absorbed local influences, reflecting the imagination and artistic traditions of different peoples.
During the Middle Ages, Chess became one of the favorite pastimes of the nobility. The game was valued for developing ingenuity, strategic thinking, and planning skills. Monarchs patronized Chess: it is known that the English King Henry I and his descendants were fond of the game, and the French King Louis IX (Louis IX, known as Saint Louis) was also a Chess player. However, in 1254 Louis issued a decree temporarily banning the clergy from playing Chess — probably out of concern that they were spending too much time on it, neglecting their religious duties. Such bans, however, could not stop the game’s spread.
By the 13th century, the game was known almost throughout Europe — from Spain and Scandinavia to the British Isles and Rus. A vivid testimony to its popularity is the manuscript created in 1283 at the court of the Castilian king Alfonso X the Wise (Alfonso X el Sabio). This illustrated treatise, known as “The Book of Games” (Libro de los juegos) and sometimes called “Alfonsina,” contained a large section devoted to Chess: it described the rules of Shatranj, included problems, and gave examples of games. Alfonso X’s work not only systematized knowledge about board games of his time but also showed the great importance attributed to Chess in medieval European culture.
The birth of modern rules
In the 15th century, Chess underwent a true revolution in its rules, giving the game a form close to the modern one. Until then, even up to the late Middle Ages, the rules varied greatly by region, and games of Shatranj developed slowly and were mostly positional in character. But around 1475 (the exact date is unknown, though most scholars point to the end of the 15th century), new rules began to be used in Italy or Spain, dramatically increasing the game’s dynamism.
The main innovation was the transformation of a relatively weak piece — the queen (adviser) — into a powerful monarch. Now the queen could move any number of squares vertically, horizontally, or diagonally, becoming the strongest piece on the board. Major changes also affected the bishop: previously limited to jumping two squares diagonally, it was now allowed to move any distance along the diagonals. As a result, the game became much more dynamic, checkmates were achieved faster, and play was enriched with combinations and brilliant attacking possibilities. It is no coincidence that contemporaries called the new style “mad queen Chess,” emphasizing the newly increased power and importance of the queen in the revised rules.
In the following centuries, other important improvements were introduced. As early as the 13th century, some regions used the rule allowing a pawn to move two squares forward from its starting position, but it became universally accepted only by the 16th century. Around the same period, two other significant elements appeared: castling — a simultaneous move of the king and rook allowing the monarch to take shelter and the rook to activate — and the en passant capture, which allowed a pawn to capture an opposing pawn that had just advanced two squares. These innovations were practiced by the late 15th century but became widely recognized and formally established only by the 17th–18th centuries.
Not all the rules immediately took their modern form. For example, the possibility of promoting a pawn to a queen was interpreted differently at first: until the 19th century, in some regions it was considered illogical to allow two queens on the board at once if the original queen had not been captured. Gradually, these norms were unified, and Chess acquired a single system of rules.
The first printed books on Chess played a major role in standardizing the game. As early as 1497, the Spaniard Luis Ramírez de Lucena published the treatise “Repetition of Love and the Art of Playing Chess” (Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez), in which he set out the updated rules and presented the first systematic opening analyses. In the 16th century, the Italian Pedro Damiano published a popular guide with practical advice that became a handbook for many players. In 1561, the Spanish priest Ruy López de Segura wrote “The Book on the Invention and Art of Playing Chess” (Libro de la invención liberal y arte del juego del axedrez), in which he systematically described opening principles in detail. Since then, his name has been attached to one of the classic openings — the “Ruy López opening,” which is still widely used in top-level tournaments today.
By the end of the 16th century, the rules of Chess had taken their final, familiar form. The game gradually ceased to be merely the pastime of nobles and was increasingly perceived as an intellectual competition. In the major cities of Europe, the first Chess clubs and cafés began to appear, where enthusiasts met, discussed games, and tested their skills in matches. One of these centers was the Café de la Régence in Paris, opened in the 1680s. For a century and a half, it gathered the strongest Chess players in France and Europe, and later it was the playing ground of François-André Danican Philidor, a future classic of Chess thought.
Philidor, an outstanding French master of the 18th century, became famous not only as a musician but also as one of the first Chess theoreticians. His work “Analysis of the Game of Chess” (Analyse du jeu des échecs, 1749) had a tremendous influence on the development of Chess science. It was in this book that he formulated the famous principle: “The pawn is the soul of Chess.” This idea changed the way the game was viewed: for the first time, pawn structure was recognized as the foundation of strategy rather than a secondary element. Philidor’s book laid the groundwork for the positional approach that would later dominate Chess theory.
Chess in the new era
The 19th century was the time when Chess finally took shape as both sport and science. The beginning of this new era is associated with the first international tournament, held in London in 1851. The winner was the German master Adolf Anderssen, whose game against Lionel Kieseritzky went down in history as the “Immortal Game,” admired for its elegance and bold combinations. The 1851 tournament attracted enormous public and media attention, cementing Chess as a true spectator competition.
At the same time, the tradition of matches for the title of strongest player began to take shape. As early as 1834, the Frenchman Louis-Charles de La Bourdonnais proved his superiority in a series of games against the Irishman Alexander McDonnell, being regarded unofficially as the strongest Chess player in the world. In the mid-century, the American genius Paul Morphy dazzled Europe, defeating its leading masters in 1858–1859 and astonishing contemporaries with the ease and depth of his play.
The official history of the World Chess Championship began in 1886, when the first match for the world title took place between the Austro-Hungarian master Wilhelm Steinitz and the representative of the Russian Empire Johannes Zukertort. Steinitz won, becoming the first official world champion and the founder of a new tradition of regular matches for the Chess crown.
The development of Chess in the 20th century led to the creation of international organizations that united the Chess world. In 1924, FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs, the International Chess Federation) was founded in Paris — a global governing body coordinating tournaments, setting uniform rules, and regulating relations between national federations. Today FIDE includes Chess organizations from 201 countries and is officially recognized by the International Olympic Committee.
Since 1927, Chess Olympiads have been held under the auspices of FIDE — team world championships that have become the main arena for competition among the best national teams. Thanks to FIDE, the world champion title acquired a consistent and institutionalized form: beginning with Wilhelm Steinitz, the 20th century saw a succession of outstanding players fighting for the Chess crown.
Among them were Emanuel Lasker, who held the title for a record 27 years (1894–1921); the Cuban José Raúl Capablanca, nicknamed “the Chess machine” for his flawless technique; Alexander Alekhine, famous for his daring combinations; Mikhail Botvinnik, the “patriarch” of the Soviet Chess school; Bobby Fischer, whose matches during the Cold War took on political symbolism; and Garry Kasparov, who occupied the top of the world rankings for many years. These names became the emblems of entire eras in the history of Chess.
One of the reasons for the sustained popularity of Chess in the 20th century was the evolution of Chess theory. After the romantic period of the 19th century, when risky attacks and sacrifices were in vogue, a more positional, scientific style of play gradually became dominant, established by Wilhelm Steinitz and his followers. Steinitz showed that victory could be achieved not only through flashy combinations but also by the gradual accumulation of positional advantages.
In the 1920s, a new movement emerged — hypermodernism. Its advocates, such as Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti, proposed a different approach to controlling the center: they argued that it was sufficient to control it with pieces from the flanks rather than occupy it directly with pawns. This challenged classical principles and led to the development of entirely new strategic ideas.
Thus, Chess became a true laboratory of thought: each generation made its own contribution to the understanding of the game. Books on Chess strategy and tactics were published in large numbers, becoming part of the broader cultural landscape and popularizing Chess far beyond the circle of professionals.
At the end of the 20th century, computer technology entered the world of Chess, bringing a genuine revolution. In 1997, IBM’s supercomputer Deep Blue defeated world champion Garry Kasparov in a six-game match. This event marked a new era — the confrontation between human and machine in intellectual sports. Since then, computer analysis has become an integral part of Chess preparation: today programs play stronger than any grandmaster, yet this has not diminished the fascination of human tournaments.
On the contrary, technological development has made Chess accessible to the masses. Since the mid-1990s, online Chess has rapidly gained popularity, allowing people to play opponents from all over the world. By the 2020s, the game experienced another surge of interest thanks to media: live broadcasts of matches on streaming platforms attract hundreds of thousands of viewers, and after the release of the series “The Queen’s Gambit” (2020), Chess reached record levels of popularity. According to the UN, around 605 million people worldwide play Chess regularly today — roughly 8% of the global population. This impressive figure confirms that the ancient game remains relevant in the digital age.
Interesting facts about Chess
- The longest game. The official record for the longest Chess game is 269 moves. This was achieved by grandmasters Ivan Nikolić and Goran Arsović in Belgrade in 1989. Their exhausting struggle lasted 20 hours and 15 minutes and ended in a draw. Today, breaking this record is almost impossible due to the “50-move rule,” according to which a game is automatically drawn if no pawn move or capture occurs within 50 consecutive moves.
- The fastest checkmate. At the other extreme is the so-called “fool’s mate,” the shortest possible checkmate in Chess. It occurs in just two moves: White makes grave errors in the opening, and Black checkmates on the second move. In practice, such an ending is found only among the most inexperienced players, but theoretically, it remains the absolute speed record for completing a game.
- Chess and culture. Chess has deeply permeated world culture and has repeatedly become a symbol of intellectual confrontation. In literature, one of the most famous examples is Lewis Carroll’s fairy tale “Through the Looking-Glass” (1871), constructed as a Chess game: Alice moves across the board as a pawn and ultimately becomes a queen. In cinema, Chess often serves as a metaphor for intellectual struggle. The legendary scene from Ingmar Bergman’s film “The Seventh Seal” (1957) shows a knight playing Chess with Death. In the “Harry Potter” film series, the scene of “wizard’s Chess” is presented as a dramatic battle. In the 21st century, Chess has remained part of popular culture. In 2020, the aforementioned series “The Queen’s Gambit” was released, featuring a young prodigy Chess player as its heroine. The series’ success sparked a real Chess boom: set sales tripled, and demand on eBay grew by 215% within weeks of the premiere. Chess has also inspired musicians: in 1986, members of the group ABBA collaborated with composers to create the musical “Chess,” set against the backdrop of a Cold War candidates’ match. The production became a cultural phenomenon, turning Chess into a metaphor for political and personal confrontation.
- National variations. In different countries, Chess developed uniquely, acquiring local traits and variations. In the Middle East, Shatranj took root; in China, the game Xiangqi (Chinese Chess) emerged; and in Japan — Shōgi. All belong to the same family but differ in rules and pieces. In China and Japan, the pieces are flat with inscribed characters and move along line intersections rather than squares. In India, there was a special variant — Chaturaji, or four-player Chess, in which four participants played from the corners of the board. As for classical Chess, in the 20th century, the Soviet Chess school gained immense fame. In the USSR, Chess was cultivated as both a sport and a tool of intellectual development, producing a galaxy of world champions. Even after the American Bobby Fischer ended the Soviet grandmasters’ dominance in 1972, the Soviet Union soon regained the title: from 1975 to 2000, the world champion title was consistently held by players from the USSR and the post-Soviet space — including Anatoly Karpov and Garry Kasparov. Chess also holds a special place in Armenia, the first country in the world to introduce it as a mandatory school subject. Since 2011, all Armenian students in grades 2–4 study Chess alongside mathematics and languages. This initiative aims to develop logic, concentration, and a sense of responsibility in children, underscoring the recognition of Chess not only as a game but also as an educational tool.
- The modern era of online Chess. Today Chess.com is the world’s largest Chess platform, uniting over 140 million registered users and attracting millions of daily players. The platform’s history began modestly: the domain chess.com was registered in 1995 to promote an educational program called Chess Mentor, and in 2005, entrepreneurs Erik Allebest and Jay Severson acquired it. In 2007, the site was relaunched in its modern format — as a portal combining online play, learning materials, and a Chess community. Since then, Chess.com has grown to a global scale. In 2022, the company took a major step by acquiring the Play Magnus Group, founded by world champion Magnus Carlsen, which manages brands like Chess24 and Chessable. This integration strengthened Chess.com’s leadership in the world of online Chess, making it a hub where education, play, tournaments, and media converge.
From the Indian battlefield to modern online platforms, Chess has become an integral part of human civilization. The game has absorbed Eastern wisdom, European chivalry, and modern rationality. Chess is valuable not only as entertainment or sport but also as a cultural phenomenon: it develops strategic thinking, self-discipline, and respect for the opponent.
Today it continues to bring together people of all ages and nations over the checkered board. From friendly games in courtyards to world championships — Chess remains an arena for intellectual duels and willpower. The game offers everyone the chance to experience the beauty and elegance of combinations. Chess — not just a game, but a universal language spoken by the entire world, a language of logic, creativity, and thought.
Despite the emergence of many new forms of entertainment, Chess continues to attract new generations. In this game, sport, science, and art combine in a remarkable way, preserving its freshness and inexhaustible appeal. After learning its rich history, it is natural to move from theory to practice: true understanding of Chess is born only at the board. In the next part, we will examine in detail the rules and main principles of this royal game, so that everyone can take their first steps and feel its unique charm.